Welcome back to Ancient Egypt! This chapter addresses the period of the New Kingdom, from about 1540 BC to about 1070 BC. The Age of Conquest!
The New Kingdom is characterized by power and influence gained, lost, gained, and finally lost again. There were wars with the Hittites, Mitanni, Assyrians, and a vague collection of peoples known as the Sea People. Kamose’s relative Ahmose succeeded him and rapidly expanded Egypt’s sphere of influence and Egypt became the most powerful nation in the Ancient Near East. A Viceroy of Nubia was named and answered only to the Pharaoh.
Tuthmosis I and III expanded the empire as far north and east as the Euphrates River and south to the 4th cataract of the Nile. The building of new temples, the reconstruction and restoration of old temples was financed by the gains in territory and wealth came to Egypt in the manner of gold, ivory, precious and semi-precious stones, ebony, cattle, gums, and resins. The favored god Amun was honored by the construction of the vast Temple of Karnak complex. The complex was added to by each succeeding pharaoh of the era. A female pharaoh named Hatshepsut built many temples and monuments during her peaceful reign and added to Egypt’s wealth by initiating trading with the Punt.
A period of turmoil and national distress followed Hatshepsut when Amenhotep IV (Akenaten) became pharaoh. He moved the capital to a newly built city, banned all gods except for a single god named Aten, closed temples, destroyed his ally the Mitanni, and began other wars in Asia and Nubia. As a result of these dramatic changes, the pharaoh lost power, influence, and more importantly, rich lands and trading agreements. The Egyptian empire shrank back to the Nile Valley and only as far south as the 2nd cataract. Never again would Egypt extend its power and control past the 2nd cataract.
Seti I and Ramses II reclaimed territories in the Near East, facing their foe the Hittites. Later the Hittites came to Ramses II seeking help against the attacking Assyrians. Ramses II took the lead in diplomacy establishing a non-aggression pact with the Hittites and supported them. A peaceful and very prosperous 67 years followed until Ramses II death in 1224 BC. By the time of Ramses III corruption, social turmoil, and political conspiracy was rampant in the central government. Between 1163 BC and 1070 BC Theban priests became the de facto leaders of Upper Egypt and the pharaoh was relegated to Lower Egypt. Former Libyan prisoners of war took control of the military arm of government, as well lands to the west. By the end of the reign of Ramses XI Egypt had once again been torn asunder, the 20th dynasty and the New Kingdom collapsed.
Visit again and follow the history of Egypt through the 3rd Intermediate Period.
by Vicki Gardner
All About Reading
Sunday, April 18, 2010
Saturday, April 17, 2010
Snapshots in Time: Ancient Egypt, the 2nd Intermediate Period
Welcome back to Ancient Egypt! This chapter addresses the period of the 2nd Intermediate Period, from about 1783 BC to about 1550 BC. Since this is such a significant era, followed by an even more important era, we will cover the 2nd Intermediate Period by itself.
The 2nd Intermediate Period is characterized by an overall state of stability and progress, however it did not begin, nor did it end, under those favorable auspices.
Exiting the Middle Kingdom era, Egypt came under the control of Canaanites called Hyksos, “ruler of the foreign land”. The Hyksos ended the 13th dynasty of Upper Egypt and the 14th Dynasty of Lower Egypt to form a single 15th dynasty. However their real control only reached as far as Thebes. Thebans re-gathered their elite and founded a 16th dynasty which the Hyksos took another 30 years to conquer. It was a fruitless battle of resources as after a few short years the Hyksos once again lost control of Lower Egypt and the Thebans formed the 17th dynasty around 1640 BC. From that point until the end of the 2nd Intermediate Period, the Hyksos maintained trade functions and peaceful political relations with Lower Egypt.
The Hyksos had other concerns for the lands they controlled in Upper Egypt. Famines were frequent due to lower than expected Nile flooding. In response, the Hyksos imported new plants and vegetables from Palestine and cattle (zebu) from Nubia to be raised. They also supported these new species by developing new irrigation methods to get the most out of what flooding the Nile was providing. In the field of textiles, a significant progression was the importation of the vertical loom. Bronze working was introduced, enabling the development of stronger tools and weapons. The first chariots are also seen during this era.
Along with providing new skills and knowledge to the conquered Egyptians, the Hyksos revitalized a dying culture while still maintaining its most sacred institutions. Learning and experimentation became a prime directive of this period - how to obtain the most from limited resources.
The 2nd Intermediate Period came to a nasty end when the Pharaoh of Upper Egypt insulted the Pharaoh of Lower Egypt, igniting all out war. The Pharaoh of Lower Egypt was killed but after three years his son Kamose was successful in routing the Hyksos, forcing them to return to Palestine.
Visit again and follow the history of Egypt through the New Kingdom.
by Vicki Gardner
The 2nd Intermediate Period is characterized by an overall state of stability and progress, however it did not begin, nor did it end, under those favorable auspices.
Exiting the Middle Kingdom era, Egypt came under the control of Canaanites called Hyksos, “ruler of the foreign land”. The Hyksos ended the 13th dynasty of Upper Egypt and the 14th Dynasty of Lower Egypt to form a single 15th dynasty. However their real control only reached as far as Thebes. Thebans re-gathered their elite and founded a 16th dynasty which the Hyksos took another 30 years to conquer. It was a fruitless battle of resources as after a few short years the Hyksos once again lost control of Lower Egypt and the Thebans formed the 17th dynasty around 1640 BC. From that point until the end of the 2nd Intermediate Period, the Hyksos maintained trade functions and peaceful political relations with Lower Egypt.
The Hyksos had other concerns for the lands they controlled in Upper Egypt. Famines were frequent due to lower than expected Nile flooding. In response, the Hyksos imported new plants and vegetables from Palestine and cattle (zebu) from Nubia to be raised. They also supported these new species by developing new irrigation methods to get the most out of what flooding the Nile was providing. In the field of textiles, a significant progression was the importation of the vertical loom. Bronze working was introduced, enabling the development of stronger tools and weapons. The first chariots are also seen during this era.
Along with providing new skills and knowledge to the conquered Egyptians, the Hyksos revitalized a dying culture while still maintaining its most sacred institutions. Learning and experimentation became a prime directive of this period - how to obtain the most from limited resources.
The 2nd Intermediate Period came to a nasty end when the Pharaoh of Upper Egypt insulted the Pharaoh of Lower Egypt, igniting all out war. The Pharaoh of Lower Egypt was killed but after three years his son Kamose was successful in routing the Hyksos, forcing them to return to Palestine.
Visit again and follow the history of Egypt through the New Kingdom.
by Vicki Gardner
Saturday, April 3, 2010
Snapshots in Time: Ancient Egypt, the 1st Intermediate and Middle Kingdoms
Welcome back to Ancient Egypt! This chapter addresses the period of the 1st Intermediate Period, from about 2200 BC to about 2040/50 BC followed by the Middle Kingdom from about 2040/50 BC to 1783 BC.
The 1st Intermediate Period is characterized by somewhat more than a century of widespread chaos and warfare. As we saw earlier, the demise of the central government due to climate conditions brought about the rise of local governments controlled by nomarchs. Some of these nomarchs were more successful politicians than others and proclaimed themselves king of their own regions, while some still recognized the failed central government.
The 9th and 10th Dynasties were in control of an area from Heracleapolis in the Delta, south to Abydos where they were challenged by the 11th Dynasty in Thebes. Lesser nomarchs aligned themselves with either the Heraclepian or Theban dynasties. The two disparate dynastic areas clashed repeatedly both politically and militarily and resulted in civil war. Small regions west of the Nile were spared the effects of warfare but a great deal of the artistic achievements of the Old Kingdom paid the price of the civil war. Local nomarchs who could not afford to pay the formerly state-sponsored artisans turned to local talent for the building of structures, inscription of hieroglyphs, and artistic decoration. Much of the artifacts of this period reflect crudity and dis-proportionate depictions as well as less ornamentation.
However the impact on Egypt as a single culture was enhanced by this period of turmoil. The rise of the local governments and warring dynasties brought the Pharaonic culture to widespread areas outside of the royal court and the elite. All Egyptians regardless of caste were now indulging in the Pharaonic culture and adapting to the ways of Ra and his cohort of gods. This cultural development insured the survival of the Pharaonic culture through the decline of the Old Kingdom to the birth of the Middle Kingdom.
Mentuhotep II of the Theban dynasty won final victory and once again unified Egypt under a single ruler and the Middle Kingdom began in about 2040-50 BC. The years cannot be precisely dated due to the state of the country at the time.
Following the death of Mentuhotep II, his vizier Amenemhat I became Pharaoh. He led military campaigns in Nubia to further Egyptian control south of the first cataract of the Nile. With the fortunes claimed, he began a new building campaign for his new administrative center in Itj-Tawi, a location central to the two former warring dynasties, as well as temples and forts along the eastern frontier. The capital itself was relocated back to Memphis as it had been during the Old Kingdom. Later, Sesostris III eliminated all local governors to once again establish central control and then directed more military campaigns in Nubia, pushing all the way south of the 2nd cataract of the Nile. He also led the first campaigns in Syria and Palestine, possible as revenge for tribal incursions into Egyptian lands. However, with his heir’s royal blood in question, a foreign potentate from the eastern Nile region wrested control – once again dividing the country and the Middle Kingdom collapsed in 1783 BC.
Visit again and follow the history of Egypt through the Second Intermediary Period.
by Vicki Gardner
The 1st Intermediate Period is characterized by somewhat more than a century of widespread chaos and warfare. As we saw earlier, the demise of the central government due to climate conditions brought about the rise of local governments controlled by nomarchs. Some of these nomarchs were more successful politicians than others and proclaimed themselves king of their own regions, while some still recognized the failed central government.
The 9th and 10th Dynasties were in control of an area from Heracleapolis in the Delta, south to Abydos where they were challenged by the 11th Dynasty in Thebes. Lesser nomarchs aligned themselves with either the Heraclepian or Theban dynasties. The two disparate dynastic areas clashed repeatedly both politically and militarily and resulted in civil war. Small regions west of the Nile were spared the effects of warfare but a great deal of the artistic achievements of the Old Kingdom paid the price of the civil war. Local nomarchs who could not afford to pay the formerly state-sponsored artisans turned to local talent for the building of structures, inscription of hieroglyphs, and artistic decoration. Much of the artifacts of this period reflect crudity and dis-proportionate depictions as well as less ornamentation.
However the impact on Egypt as a single culture was enhanced by this period of turmoil. The rise of the local governments and warring dynasties brought the Pharaonic culture to widespread areas outside of the royal court and the elite. All Egyptians regardless of caste were now indulging in the Pharaonic culture and adapting to the ways of Ra and his cohort of gods. This cultural development insured the survival of the Pharaonic culture through the decline of the Old Kingdom to the birth of the Middle Kingdom.
Mentuhotep II of the Theban dynasty won final victory and once again unified Egypt under a single ruler and the Middle Kingdom began in about 2040-50 BC. The years cannot be precisely dated due to the state of the country at the time.
Following the death of Mentuhotep II, his vizier Amenemhat I became Pharaoh. He led military campaigns in Nubia to further Egyptian control south of the first cataract of the Nile. With the fortunes claimed, he began a new building campaign for his new administrative center in Itj-Tawi, a location central to the two former warring dynasties, as well as temples and forts along the eastern frontier. The capital itself was relocated back to Memphis as it had been during the Old Kingdom. Later, Sesostris III eliminated all local governors to once again establish central control and then directed more military campaigns in Nubia, pushing all the way south of the 2nd cataract of the Nile. He also led the first campaigns in Syria and Palestine, possible as revenge for tribal incursions into Egyptian lands. However, with his heir’s royal blood in question, a foreign potentate from the eastern Nile region wrested control – once again dividing the country and the Middle Kingdom collapsed in 1783 BC.
Visit again and follow the history of Egypt through the Second Intermediary Period.
by Vicki Gardner
Friday, March 26, 2010
Snapshots in Time: Ancient Egypt, the Old Kingdom
Welcome back to Ancient Egypt! This chapter addresses the period of the Old Kingdom, from about 2700 BC to 2200 BC and is more accurately a continuation and refinement of the Pre-Dynastic Period rather than a definition of any abrupt changes in culture, religion, and politics.
A major significance in religious and political developments is the change from stellar beliefs to solar beliefs. This is evidenced in the purpose of pyramids. During the Pre-Dynastic Period you will recall that the Step Pyramids were not funerary but stairways to the stars; with the reign of Snefru the purpose became a solar symbol and a representation of Life. The title “Son of Ra” was added to the growing list of affirmations bestowed upon the king of Egypt. Snefru modified the step pyramid of Meidum to a true square-based pyramid and built the Bent Pyramid. All the great pyramids of Giza were built during the 4th Dynasty.
The impact of pyramid and temple building on Egypt was political in nature as the need to control men, material, supplies, and state-sponsored artists engendered a strong administration at both the central and local levels. The need for expensive raw materials for artists brought with it the need for the exploitation of the Sinai for its copper and turquoise, and military posts and trading centers in Nubia to obtain great amounts of its gold ore. As part of these military forays into lands beyond the Nile Valley, a warrior caste was developed within the military.
At the end of the 5th Dynasty, pyramid and temple artists began to inscribe “Pyramid Texts” which described the fate of the king in the afterlife in addition to relating his accomplishments during life. From these texts we learn the breadth of the Egyptian religion of the time.
During the end years of the Old Kingdom the annual flooding of the Nile decreased. The added strain on how best to provide for the people became difficult from a single centralized administrator. Decisions regarding how to best use what flood effluence was experienced was left to local administrators. Power, once granted, is hard to regain and the Old Kingdom power center eroded and finally collapsed at the death of Pepi II. What followed was a period of turmoil called the First Intermediary Period.
Visit again and follow the history of Egypt through the First Intermediary Period.
by Vicki Gardner
A major significance in religious and political developments is the change from stellar beliefs to solar beliefs. This is evidenced in the purpose of pyramids. During the Pre-Dynastic Period you will recall that the Step Pyramids were not funerary but stairways to the stars; with the reign of Snefru the purpose became a solar symbol and a representation of Life. The title “Son of Ra” was added to the growing list of affirmations bestowed upon the king of Egypt. Snefru modified the step pyramid of Meidum to a true square-based pyramid and built the Bent Pyramid. All the great pyramids of Giza were built during the 4th Dynasty.
The impact of pyramid and temple building on Egypt was political in nature as the need to control men, material, supplies, and state-sponsored artists engendered a strong administration at both the central and local levels. The need for expensive raw materials for artists brought with it the need for the exploitation of the Sinai for its copper and turquoise, and military posts and trading centers in Nubia to obtain great amounts of its gold ore. As part of these military forays into lands beyond the Nile Valley, a warrior caste was developed within the military.
At the end of the 5th Dynasty, pyramid and temple artists began to inscribe “Pyramid Texts” which described the fate of the king in the afterlife in addition to relating his accomplishments during life. From these texts we learn the breadth of the Egyptian religion of the time.
During the end years of the Old Kingdom the annual flooding of the Nile decreased. The added strain on how best to provide for the people became difficult from a single centralized administrator. Decisions regarding how to best use what flood effluence was experienced was left to local administrators. Power, once granted, is hard to regain and the Old Kingdom power center eroded and finally collapsed at the death of Pepi II. What followed was a period of turmoil called the First Intermediary Period.
Visit again and follow the history of Egypt through the First Intermediary Period.
by Vicki Gardner
Thursday, March 18, 2010
Snapshots in Time: Ancient Egypt, the Pre-Dynastic and Early Dynastic Periods
Egypt is a land with a long history – one of the longest histories recorded for mankind. In this series we will cover the most important eras of this fabled land, highlighting the accomplishments of each era. This is not a definitive work; rather it is a synopsis of catalogued historical facts.
Pre-Dynastic Period
Due to worldwide climate changes around 30,000 BC, parts of the continent of Africa began to dry out and the Sahara Desert began its formation. Early peoples and animals began to migrate to more fertile areas. One of those areas was along the Nile River with its seasonal flooding which enriched the soil for early agrarian societies. These societies needed more sophisticated stone tools than had been previously been in use and the development of spears and bows arose. At about 13,000 BC these seasonal communities began to develop ritual burials and cemeteries. By 7000 BC the seasonal communities had become permanent settlements in the Nile Valley. These settlements had structures typically made from bricks, wood, and reeds.
Early Dynastic Period
The Early Dynastic Period is approximately the first 500 years of what is usually considered Ancient Egyptian History and begins in 3100 BC with Menes, the king who first conquered and unified Upper and Lower Egypt. Prior to this time kings of both realms where recorded as being various gods and demigods, Menes is the first king to be considered the embodiment of Horus and not the actual god himself. The concept of “divine kingship” instead of divinity being king is significant in that it allowed the development of centralized government. The new centralized government needed more sophisticated communication skills, which forced the evolution of artistic writing into hieroglyphics with both phonetic and ideographic values.
The new centralized government also promoted the rise of urbanism with its need to have skilled craftsmen readily available. These craftsmen began to change the landscape of the new urban areas by building in stone instead of brick and wood. The architecture developed in this period, while refined over time, characterizes Egyptian architecture for the next 3000 years until the Greco-Roman Period. With the rapidly developing physical and social structures came a need for security and the first true career military came into fashion. These developments in the Nile Valley demonstrate the consolidation of the cultural, religious, and political evolutions of the Pre-Dynastic Period. The most visual reminders of the accomplishments of this era are the Step Pyramids at Saqqara. Built of stone, they were not intended for funerary use like later pyramids, but they do show the development of high levels of engineering and lead us to the next era: the Old Kingdom.
Visit again and follow the history of Egypt through the Old Kingdom.
By: Vicki Gardner
Pre-Dynastic Period
Due to worldwide climate changes around 30,000 BC, parts of the continent of Africa began to dry out and the Sahara Desert began its formation. Early peoples and animals began to migrate to more fertile areas. One of those areas was along the Nile River with its seasonal flooding which enriched the soil for early agrarian societies. These societies needed more sophisticated stone tools than had been previously been in use and the development of spears and bows arose. At about 13,000 BC these seasonal communities began to develop ritual burials and cemeteries. By 7000 BC the seasonal communities had become permanent settlements in the Nile Valley. These settlements had structures typically made from bricks, wood, and reeds.
Early Dynastic Period
The Early Dynastic Period is approximately the first 500 years of what is usually considered Ancient Egyptian History and begins in 3100 BC with Menes, the king who first conquered and unified Upper and Lower Egypt. Prior to this time kings of both realms where recorded as being various gods and demigods, Menes is the first king to be considered the embodiment of Horus and not the actual god himself. The concept of “divine kingship” instead of divinity being king is significant in that it allowed the development of centralized government. The new centralized government needed more sophisticated communication skills, which forced the evolution of artistic writing into hieroglyphics with both phonetic and ideographic values.
The new centralized government also promoted the rise of urbanism with its need to have skilled craftsmen readily available. These craftsmen began to change the landscape of the new urban areas by building in stone instead of brick and wood. The architecture developed in this period, while refined over time, characterizes Egyptian architecture for the next 3000 years until the Greco-Roman Period. With the rapidly developing physical and social structures came a need for security and the first true career military came into fashion. These developments in the Nile Valley demonstrate the consolidation of the cultural, religious, and political evolutions of the Pre-Dynastic Period. The most visual reminders of the accomplishments of this era are the Step Pyramids at Saqqara. Built of stone, they were not intended for funerary use like later pyramids, but they do show the development of high levels of engineering and lead us to the next era: the Old Kingdom.
Visit again and follow the history of Egypt through the Old Kingdom.
By: Vicki Gardner
Saturday, January 23, 2010
Defining a civilization
What is the definition of a civilization? What are the characteristics of civilized countries?
At first I thought I could rattle off the answers. Then..... When you stop to really think about things, it is never as simple as you originally think. Sometimes definitions can really be from a perspective. What does it mean to be civilized?
The most common answers involve developing tools and progressing in the areas of science, math, and the arts. But is that all a civilized culture is? They have to achieve great things that last for centuries? Or does it go much deeper than that?
History can define a civilization as one that has created a sense of unity among its members, create forms of art, and had a developed sense of government. Many others might show development in humanitarian efforts and agricultural areas. But in today's world does that still fit the definition of a civilization?
That is something to be considered. We sometimes call people civilized or uncivilized. These same people fit the definition of civilization, yet we might call them "uncivilized". Does having a government, art, and a structured society mean that the civilization is civilized or are they in reality the barbarians that they condemn?
A civilization is a group of people with a common purpose and goal. Does that mean the countries of today are not civilized civilizations?
At first I thought I could rattle off the answers. Then..... When you stop to really think about things, it is never as simple as you originally think. Sometimes definitions can really be from a perspective. What does it mean to be civilized?
The most common answers involve developing tools and progressing in the areas of science, math, and the arts. But is that all a civilized culture is? They have to achieve great things that last for centuries? Or does it go much deeper than that?
History can define a civilization as one that has created a sense of unity among its members, create forms of art, and had a developed sense of government. Many others might show development in humanitarian efforts and agricultural areas. But in today's world does that still fit the definition of a civilization?
That is something to be considered. We sometimes call people civilized or uncivilized. These same people fit the definition of civilization, yet we might call them "uncivilized". Does having a government, art, and a structured society mean that the civilization is civilized or are they in reality the barbarians that they condemn?
A civilization is a group of people with a common purpose and goal. Does that mean the countries of today are not civilized civilizations?
Tuesday, January 5, 2010
Why should the doctrine of predestination never be used as an excuse not to evangelize?
This is a good question because some people will use predestination doctrine as an excuse to not spread the Word. But we cannot use any doctrine as the litmus test on our actions. The Bible has to be the only one.
What happens if we do use predestination as an excuse not to evangelize? First and foremost, we are disobedient to God. Before Jesus physically left the earth, He gave a command to ALL who follow Him. He did not say that only a select few were to do this. He did not say that we could sit on our rears because the work was already done.
What do we get out of evangelizing? One, we are obedient. Two, we grow. When we are humble enough to submit to God's authority, we are learn new dimensions of ourselves. We learn more about human nature and we learn how far we can really go.
We do not know who is "predestined". We do not know what is in anyone's heart. There are people who are yearning for God and need someone to be there for them to explain it. The Ethiopian eunuch was needing Philip to explain the scriptures. If Philip thought, "I do not need to say anything. God already has it worked out.", then Philip would have missed being a tool and being a part of something so wonderful. We never know what is before us or around the next corner. When we can be submissive and willing to be used the way He needs us, we are blessed and get to experience so much more.
What happens if we do use predestination as an excuse not to evangelize? First and foremost, we are disobedient to God. Before Jesus physically left the earth, He gave a command to ALL who follow Him. He did not say that only a select few were to do this. He did not say that we could sit on our rears because the work was already done.
What do we get out of evangelizing? One, we are obedient. Two, we grow. When we are humble enough to submit to God's authority, we are learn new dimensions of ourselves. We learn more about human nature and we learn how far we can really go.
We do not know who is "predestined". We do not know what is in anyone's heart. There are people who are yearning for God and need someone to be there for them to explain it. The Ethiopian eunuch was needing Philip to explain the scriptures. If Philip thought, "I do not need to say anything. God already has it worked out.", then Philip would have missed being a tool and being a part of something so wonderful. We never know what is before us or around the next corner. When we can be submissive and willing to be used the way He needs us, we are blessed and get to experience so much more.
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